What is work design? What are its constituents?

What is work design? What are its constituents? Explain using a schematic diagram. What is job design? What are the behavioral aspects in job design?

Answer. Work design is concerned with the study of design of the work system in an organization or an institution. Work system design is the systematic investigation of contemplated and present work systems to formulate through the ideal system concept, the easiest and the most effective systems and methods for achieving necessary functions/goals/purpose.
Work systems involve people, machines, tools, documents, and facilities interacting in activities over time. These activities produce goods, services or scientific data. Many work systems we encounter everyday have existed over a long period of time. Improvement of such work systems is often done through business process analysis and reengineering. But managers must also design work systems de novo. One of the challenges of work system design is that work systems are often large and complex and persist over a long period of time. This makes the design process complex and non-deterministic.

EXAMPLE OF WORK SYSTEM DESIGN
Victoria is the name of a proposed long-term semiautonomous robotic mission to the South Pole region of the Moon. The primary mission objective of Victoria is to verify the presence of water ice and other volatiles within permanently shadowed regions on the Moon. This will be accomplished by gathering the necessary lunar data for analyzing the history of water and other volatiles on the Moon, and by implication in the inner solar system. The Victoria team has decided to use a high-speed semi-autonomous rover. One of the biggest constraints in any robotic mission is power consumption of the robot. In every activity the rover uses energy, therefore the sequence of activities for the rover is constrained by the amount of power available to complete the sequence. When the robot's batteries are low, it needs to return to a sun-exposed spot to recharge its batteries. During the Victoria mission the rover will traverse into permanently dark regions on the Moon. During these traverses the rover will use its neutron detector instrument to detect hydrogen and the Sample Acquisition and Transfer Mechanism (SATM) to drill into the lunar surface and take surface samples to be investigated using an array of science instruments. The work system design problem is to configure the mission operations so the robot's activities inside the permanent dark region are most efficient (i.e. consume the least amount of energy).

To develop a simulation of the Victoria work system, we used a collaborative modeling approach with the Victoria mission designers. First, we created informal static models of the activities of the people, robot, and artifacts, the communication and geography, in informal design meetings and modeling sessions. Next, we translated these descriptions into formal Brahms models, producing simulation results. The following figure shows the Victoria work system.

Job design is the consciously planned structuring of work effort performed by an individual or a team of persons. Various factors that must be addressed in job design can be grouped into various categories such as human factors, design factors, environmental factors, organisational factors, technical factors, behavioural factors, etc.

In design factors, one must consider the layout of equipment and seating arrangement. Ideally, the equipment design should start with the operator by laying out the areas for vision, for controls, for sitting, for leg room etc. by taking note of standard anthropometric data of men and women, as the case may be. Job design should consider whether the job is to be done standing or sitting or in both the ways. It is the requirements of good seating that the person while sitting should be able to maintain a good posture which will not cause overstrain of any particular group of muscles.

Environmental factors in general affect the job design significantly. For instance, if the temperature level is high one need frequent intervals of rest in between a particular job. On the contrary, if the temperature level is low, fatigue is less and human endurance to do a particular job continuously increases and thus number of intervals required for rest is reduced. Similar is the case with humidity. High level of humidity causes sweating and demands frequent intervals for rest. Hence in such situations of heat and humidity, work requires air conditioning and proper ventilation. When it is not possible, workman should be removed from the environment at appropriate times to allow him/her to cool off.

BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS IN JOB DESIGN
Traditionally jobs were designed to minimize immediate cost and maximize immediate productivity. But not behavioural factors also play a major role in job design.

Jobs are set of tasks, each task being associated with as set of stimuli-auditory, visual and or tactile. A job consisting of varied tasks provides varied stimuli; a job with routine repetitive tasks usually provides few stimuli.

Job Rotation: Job rotation moves employees from one task to another. It distributes the group tasks among a number of employees. On the positive side, it may said that job rotation is likely to increase intrinsic reward potential of a job because different skills and abilities needed to perform. On the negative side, it may stated that job rotation may not have much impact on employee enthusiasm and efficiency.

Job Enlargement: If jobs become too specialized, workers perceive their job to be monotonous and this leads to dissatisfaction. Job enlargement changes the jobs to include more and/or different tasks. Job enlargement should add interest to the work but may or may not give employees more responsibility. Job enlargement is opposite to work simplification. Job enlargement is said to contribute to employee motivation.

Job Enrichment: Job enrichment is the process redesigning work content to make the job more meaningful and enjoyable by involving employees in planning, organizing and controlling their work. Job enrichment allows employees to assume more responsibility, accountability, and independence when learning new tasks or to allow for greater participation and new opportunities.

Which view of job design do you think is most practical ?

Which view of job design do you think is most practical ? Most humane ? Most likely to succeed in the long term ?

Job design is the consciously planned structuring of work effort performed by an individual or a team of persons. Various factors that must be addressed in job design can be grouped into various categories such as human factors, design factors, environmental factors, organisational factors, technical factors, behavioural factors, etc.
In design factors, one must consider the layout of equipment and seating arrangement. Ideally, the equipment design should start with the operator by laying out the areas for vision, for controls, for sitting, for leg room etc. by taking note of standard anthropometries data of men and women, as the case may be. Job design should consider whether the job is to be done standing or sitting or in both the ways. It is the requirements cf good seating that the person while sitting should be able to maintain a good pos'.ure, which will not cause overstrain of any particular group of muscles. For positioning conteels, general principles of motion economy as laid down by Gilbreth should be taken as guideline. Accurate positioning of manipulative movements should be made near the body and controls, which need fine adjustment, should be placed close to and opposite the hand, which will operate them. Appropriate attention should be given to instrument display design according to the situation and place where it is needed. Controls of the equipment should be compatible with the natural movements and hence natural movements should be kept in mind while designing instrumental knobs/controls.
Environmental factors in general affect the job design significantly. For instance, if the temperature level is high one need frequent intervals of rest in between a particular job. On the contrary, if tne temperature level is low, fatigue is less and human endurance to do a particular job continuously increases and thus number of intervals required for rest is reduced. Similar is the case with humidity. High level of humidity causes sweating and demands frequent intervals for rest. Hence in such situations of heat and humidity, work requires air conditioning and proper ventilation. When.it is not possible, workman should be removed from the environment at appropriate times to allow him/her to cool off.
Vibrations have different effect on human body depending upon the intensity of the vibration and it certain affects the efficiency of the individual. Noise is another important environmental factor, which could be a cause of fatigue and irritation resulting in loss of output. It has been observed that noise above 90 decibels can induce the commission of "Tors in those who are normally accustomed to noise. Noise may also interfere with oral






communication between persons and also between man and his equipment by masking the .sound of warning signals or bells. In such situations, auxiliary visual signal should al$o be considered.
Efficiency of industrial tasks also depends on adequate vision and therefore, lighting arrangements may play an important role in determining the efficiency with which tasks are carried out. The standards of lighting and recommended levels of illumination at work place are good aids for work and job designers. Generally, at normal levels of illumination, the ability to see increases in proportion to the logarithm of the illumination. Apart from direct lighting standards, there are some other important factors which can affect performance. The contrasts between the surroundings and the task being performed, the colour schemes and the presence or absence of glare could greatly influence the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the work. Generally, warm saturated colours such as yellows and reds tend to give a sense of warmth and an advancing effect. Conversely, cool shades of blues, greens and grays tend to give a sense of coldness and recession. Hence, a great deal can be achieved by good lighting, the use of colour, by the manipulation of contrasts to make a work place in the factory or office, a pleasant place where people will be happy to work and perhaps become more effective and efficient.
Among organisational factors, rules and regulations governing the break or rest pause, optimum arrangement of work and rest, working hours, job enrichment, job enlargement and job rotations are important issues which need to be addressed while designing job. When and how much breaks or rest pauses is to be given to an operator/worker is an important issue. Work should cease at the point in time at which lactic acid (responsible for muscle fatigue) starts to accumulate in the body. Organisational factors, which are also part of~t>ehavioural dimensions of job design, include job enlargement, job enrichment, job rotation and participative job design. Job enlargement is the procedure of redesigning jobs or modifying work so that employees can feel more involved in and responsible for what they do. Job enrichment is a procedure of redesigning work content to make the job more meaningful and enjoyable by involving employees in planning, organizing and controlling their work. Job rotation is also an important aspect because many times working in a particular job gives rise to boredom. The operator/worker may also be involved in design procedure, which would mean greater success in implementing any changes that need to be done in the organisation.
Last but not the least; job design should adopt the socio-technical approach (consideration of both the technology of production and the social aspects of the work environment).______________________________________________
Socio-Technical Approach To job design:
The consideration of both then technology of production and the social aspects of the work environment is called the socio- approach to job design that provides for high levels of productivity and quality and at the same time ensures a satisfying job and work environment. The socio-economic approach emphasis the need for integrating the social consequences of work with the traditional cost versus quality considerations of production. The concept of socio-technical systems was first elucidated by Eric Trist and his colleagues at the Tavistock Institution of Social Research in London.







On the basis of studies carried out at the Tavistock Institution, the following guidelines for job design are offered at the level of the individual:
1. Optimum variety of tasks within the job.
2. A meaningful pattern of tasks that gives each jobs a semblance of a single, overall task. 3.Optimum length of work cycle.
4. Some scope fro setting standards of quality and quantity of production and a suitable feedback of knowledge of results.
5. Inclusion in the job of some of the auxiliary and preparatory tasks.
6. Inclusion in the job of some degree of care, skill, knowledge or effect that is worthy of respect I the community.
7. Perceivable contribution of the job to the utility of the consumer.
Some group level guidelines are:
8. Providing for ' interlocking' tasks, job rotation or physical proximity where
a) There is a necessary inter-dependence of jobs for technical or psychological reasons.
b) The individual jobs entail a relatively high degree of stress.
c) The individual jobs do not make obvious, perceivable contribution to the utility of the end product.
9 If a number of jobs are linked together by interlocking tasks or jobs rotation, they should, as a group, have some:
a) Semblance of an overall task that makes a contribution to the utility of the products,
b) Scope for setting standards and receiving knowledge results, and —c) Control over the ' boundary tasks'.
Some caution is however, needed in implementing the above guidelines, For example, a 'loose rein' situation of forming and functioning of autonomous groups might not be tolerated by certain job designers. Sufficient amount of top management support might be needed to make traditional job designers 'toe the line' of a socio-technical perspective.